Since 1999 when Hugo Chavez assumed the presidency of the Venezuelan government, Venezuela has pursued economic policies that are incongruous with neoliberalism. As the Venezuelan economy for many years before 1999 had been largely governed by neoliberal policies, Chavez's rule brought about a drastic change to the country's energy policy. Here, the oil industry, which had long been the pillar and basis of the national economy, was particularly impacted. For instance, despite the denunciations by the U.S. government and international oil companies, the Chavez government set out to gradually re-nationalize the petroleum industry and sought to establish more Venezuela-centered energy cooperation regimes. (The rest is omitted.)